Child development stages

 

Describe theoretical milestones of child development. Many stage models of development have been proposed, used as working concepts and in some cases asserted as nativist theories.

This article puts forward a general model based on the most widely accepted developmental stages. However, it is important to understand that there is wide variation in terms of what is considered "normal," driven by a wide variety of genetic, cognitive, physical, family, cultural, nutritional, educational, and environmental factors. Many children will reach some or most of these milestones at different times from the norm.

Specifications sorted by reached age

1–4 months

Physical

• Head and chest circumference are nearly equal to the part of the abdomen.
• Head circumference increases approximately 2 cm per month until two months, then increases 1.5 cm per month until four months.
• Increases are an important indication of continued brain growth.
• Continues to breathe using abdominal muscles.
• Posterior fontanel.
• Anterior fontanel.
• Skin remains sensitive and easily irritated.
• Legs.
• Cries with tears.
• Gums are red.
• Eyes begin moving together in unison (binocular vision).

Motor development

• Rooting and sucking reflexes are well developed.
• Swallowing reflex and tongue movements are immature;inability to move food to the back of the mouth.
• Grasp reflex.
• Landau reflex appears near the middle of this period; when baby is held in a prone (face down) position, the head is held upright and legs are fully extended.
• Grasps with entire hand; strength insufficient to hold items. Holds hands in an open or semi-open position.
• Movements are large and jerky.
• Raises head and upper body on arms when in a prone position.
• Turns head side to side when in a supine (face up) position;can not hold head up and line with the body.
• Upper body parts are more active: clasps hands above face, waves arms about, reaches for objects.

4–8 months

Physical

• Head and chest circumferences are basically equal.
• Head circumference increases approximately 1 cm per month until six to seven months, then 0.5 cm per month; head circumference should continue to increase steadily, indicating healthy, ongoing brain growth.
• Breathing is abdominal; respiration rate depending on activity; rate and patterns vary from infant to infant.
• Teeth may begin to appear, with upper and lower incisors coming in first. Gums may become red and swollen, accompanied by increased drooling, chewing, biting, and mouthing of objects.
• Legs may appear bowed; bowing gradually disappears as infant grows older.
• Fat rolls ("Baby Fat") appear on thighs, upper arms and neck.
• True eye color is established.

Motor development

• Reflexive behaviors are changing:
• Blinking reflex is well established
• Sucking reflex becomes voluntary
• Moro reflex disappears
• When lowered suddenly, infant throws out arms as a protective measure.
• Swallowing reflex appears and allows infant to move solid foods from front of mouth to the back for swallowing.
• Picks up objects using finger and thumb (pincer grip).
• Reaches for objects with both arms simultaneously; later reaches with one hand or the other.
• Transfers objects from one hand to the other; grasps object using entire hand (palmar grasp).
• Handles, shakes, and pounds objects; puts everything in mouth.
• Able to hold bottle.
• Sits alone without support, holding head erect, back straightened, and arms propped forward for support
• Pulls self into a crawling position by raising up on arms and drawing knees up beneath the body; rocks back and forth, but generally does not move forward.
• Lifts head when placed on back.
• Can roll over from back or stomach position.
• May accidentally begin scooting backwards when placed on stomach; soon will begin to crawl forward.
• Looks for fallen objects by 7 months
• Plays ‘peek-a-boo’ games
• Cannot understand “no” or “danger”

8–12 Months

Physical

• Respiration rates vary with activity
• Environmental conditions, weather, activity, and clothing still affect variations in body temperature.
• Head and chest circumference remain equal.
• Continues to use abdominal muscles for breathing.
• Anterior fontanel begins to close.
• More teeth appear, often in the order of two lower incisors then two upper incisors followed by four more incisors and two lower molars but some babies may still be waiting for their first.
• Arm and hands are more developed than feet and legs (cephalocaudal development); hands appear large in proportion to other body parts.
• Legs may continue to appear bowed.
• "Baby Fat" continues to appear on thighs, upper arms and neck.
• Feet appear flat as arch has not yet fully developed.
• Both eyes work in unison (true binocular coordination).
• Can see distant objects (4 to 6 m or 13 to 20 ft away) and points at them.

Toddlers (12–24 months)

Physical

• Weight is now approximately 3 times the child's birth weight.
• Respiration rate varies with emotional state and activity.
• Rate of growth slows
• Head size increases slowly; grows approximately 1.3 cm every six months; anterior fontanelle is nearly closed at eighteen months as bones of the skull thicken.
• Chest circumference is larger than head circumference.
• Legs may still appear bowed.
• Toddler will begin to lose the "Baby Fat" once he/she begins walking.
• Body shape changes; takes on more adult-like appearance; still appears top-heavy; abdomen protrudes, back is swayed.

Motor development

• Crawls skillfully and quickly.
• Stands alone with feet spread apart, legs stiffened, and arms extended for support.
• Gets to feet unaided.
• Most children walk unassisted near the end of this period; falls often; not always able to maneuver around obstacles, such as furniture or toys.
• Uses furniture to lower self to floor; collapses backwards into a sitting position or falls forward on hands and then sits.
• Enjoys pushing or pulling toys while walking.
• Repeatedly picks up objects and throws them; direction becomes more deliberate.
• Attempts to run; has difficulty stopping and usually just drops to the floor.
• Crawls up stairs on all fours; goes down stairs in same position.
• Sits in a small chair.
• Carries toys from place to place.
• Enjoys crayons and markers for scribbling; uses whole-arm movement.
• Helps feed self; enjoys holding spoon (often upside down) and drinking from a glass or cup; not always accurate in getting utensils into mouth; frequent spills should be expected.
• Helps turn pages in book.
• Stacks two to six objects per day.

Cognitive development

• Enjoys object-hiding activities
• Early in this period, the child always searches in the same location for a hidden object (if the child has watched the hiding of an object). Later, the child will search in several locations.
• Passes toy to other hand when offered a second object (referred to as "crossing the midline"-an important neurological development).
• Manages three to four objects by setting an object aside (on lap or floor) when presented with a new toy.
• Puts toys in mouth less often.
• Enjoys looking at picture books.
• Demonstrates understanding of functional relationships (objects that belong together): Puts spoon in bowl and then uses spoon as if eating; places teacup on saucer and sips from cup; tries to make doll stand up.
• Shows or offers toy to another person to look at.
• Names many everyday objects.
• Shows increasing understanding of spatial and form discrimination: puts all pegs in a pegboard; places three geometric shapes in large formboard or puzzle.
• Places several small items (blocks, clothespins, cereal pieces) in a container or bottle and then dumps them out.
• Tries to make mechanical objects work after watching someone else do so.
• Responds with some facial movement, but cannot truly imitate facial expression.
• Most children with autism are diagnosed at this age.

Language

• Produces considerable "jargon": puts words and sounds together into speech-like (inflected) patterns.
• Holophrastic speech: uses one word to convey an entire thought; meaning depends on the inflection ("me" may be used to request more cookies or a desire to feed self). Later; produces two-word phrases to express a complete thought (telegraphic speech): "More cookie," "Daddy bye-bye."
• Follows simple directions, "Give Daddy the cup."
• When asked, will point to familiar persons, animals, and toys.
• Identifies three body parts if someone names them: "Show me your nose (toe, ear)."
• Indicates a few desired objects and activities by name: "Bye-bye," "cookie"; verbal request is often accompanied by an insistent gesture.
• Responds to simple questions with "yes" or "no" and appropriate head movement.
• Speech is 25 to 50 percent intelligible during this period.
• Locates familiar objects on request (if child knows location of objects).
• Acquires and uses five to fifty words; typically these are words that refer to animals, food, and toys.
• Uses gestures, such as pointing or pulling, to direct adult attention.
• Enjoys rhymes and songs; tries to join in.
• Seems aware of reciprocal (back and forth) aspects of conversational exchanges; some turn-taking in other kinds of vocal exchanges, such as making and imitating sounds.

Social

• less wary of strangers.
• Helps pick up and put away toys.
• Plays by themselves

• Enjoys being held and read to.
• Often imitates adult actions in play.
• Enjoys adult attention; likes to know that an adult is near; gives hugs and kisses.
• Recognizes self in mirror.
• Enjoys the companionship of other children, but does not play cooperatively.
• Beginning to assert independence; often refuses to cooperate with daily routines that once were enjoyable; resists getting dressed, putting on shoes, eating, taking a bath; wants to try doing things without help.
• May have a tantrum when things go wrong or if overly tired or frustrated.
• Exceedingly curious about people and surroundings; toddlers need to be watched carefully to prevent them from getting into unsafe situations.

Psychological

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (will)

(J. Chasse, 2008) Psychosocial stimulation is vital during the toddler years. Play begins to become interactive. Toddlers begin to learn and exhibit independence, but ironically they enjoy sharing this discovery with others. Another important advancement is active social play with adults including mirroring and repeating. Songs, rhymes, and finger plays (e.g. eensy weensy spider, little teapot, etc.) are a great way to encourage and stimulate this area of development. Want attention, if not paid start throwing objects, trouble you watching TV. Scared from dark, start crying loudly under the situation.